History of SOFIA and Airborne Astronomy
This article by Wendy Whiting Dolci from a 1997 issue of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics' magazine is a history of airborne astronomy platforms starting in the 1920s and continuing to SOFIA's predecessor the Kuiper Airborne Observatory (KAO) that ended service in 1996. Wendy was one of the KAO's on-board Mission Directors and later Assistant Project Manager.
| 2013 | |
|---|---|
| November | SOFIA target of opportunity flight – Comet ISON FIFI-LS instrument delivered to SOFIA operating base |
| July | SOFIA deploys to Southern Hemisphere |
| April | SOFIA observes G35 star forming region SOFIA makes 100th science flight |
| 2012 | |
| October | First detection in the interstellar medium of the mercapto radical SH and the deuterated hydroxyl radical OD |
| August | SOFIA Observes Sharpless 140 Star-forming region |
| April | SOFIA instrument upgrades announced |
| March | SOFIA images Planetary Nebula M2-9 |
| January | Twenty-Six educators selected to fly on SOFIA SOFIA images newborn star cluster W3A |
| 2011 | |
| December | SOFIA examines Messier 42 (M42) |
| November | SOFIA studies W40 Star Forming Region SOFIA observes Betelgeuse |
| September | SOFIA’s first Trans-Atlantic Deployment (Cologne and Stuttgart, Germany) |
| June | SOFIA observes Pluto Occultation |
| April | First flight of SOFIA’s GREAT instrument |
| January | SOFIA images Messier 42 (M42) |
| 2010 | |
| November | SOFIA begins "Short Science" observing phase with FORCAST and the German REceiver for Astronomy at Terahertz Frequencies, or GREAT. (GREAT's flights began in April 2011.) First science flight flown on November 30, 2010, with FORCAST on the telescope. |
| May | "First Light" for SOFIA achieved on the night of May 25/26. Targets are Jupiter and Messier 82 galaxy. |
| February | The Faint Object InfraRed Camera for the SOFIA Telescope, or FORCAST, instrument is delivered to the NASA Dryden Aircraft Operations Facility (DAOF) in Palmdale, Calif. |
| 2009 | |
| December | SOFIA achieves first 100-percent open door test flight. |
| June | The Science Vision for SOFIA is published. Download the pdf (22 MB file). |
| 2008 | |
| October | Primary Mirror reinstalled into SOFIA. |
| June | Primary Mirror coated for first time at NASA Ames Research Center. |
| April | Telescope Primary Mirror removed in preparation for coating |
| March | SOFIA Line Operations conducted in Palmdale, CA at the Dryden Aircraft Operations Facility. A team of scientists, engineers, and staff from ARC, DFRC, USRA, DSI, DLR, and MAN collaborated on a series of tests of the SOFIA telescope assembly and software |
| January | SOFIA Visits Ames Research Center on the way to its permanent home at the SOFIA Operations Center, located at the Dryden Aircraft Operations Facility (DAOF) in Palmdale, CA. |
| 2007 | |
| May |
SOFIA’s 747 flown to Dryden Flight Research Center, at Edward AFB in California for systems installation and integration and additional flight testing SOFIA Re-Dedicated as "Clipper Lindbergh" at Dryden Flight Research Center |
| April | SOFIA Completes First Flight in Waco, TX |
| 2006 | |
| August | NASA PMC (Program Management Council) chooses Dryden Flight Research Center to complete systems installation and integration and conduct flight tests of the flying observatory; SOFIA Program Office responsibility relocated to DFRC. Under new Program structure DFRC has responsibility for the "Platform Project" (e.g., the aircraft), and ARC has responsibility for "Science Project". |
| 2005 | |
| July | FORCAST Instrument tested at Palomar. |
| (on-going) | Fuel tanks Checked |
| April-May | Installation of Lower Flex Door and Aperture Assembly |
| February | Landing Gear Checked |
| January | Installation of Upper Rigid Door |
| 2004 | |
| December | Installation of Upper Rigid Door |
| September-November | Three external reviews: Independent Science & Operations Review (ISOR), budget/management review (ICSMR), Independent Aircraft Operations Panel (IAOP) |
| August | HIPO successfully installed on telescope mount |
| June | Partnership with Evergreen |
| April | Proof Pressure Test |
| 2003 | |
|
TA activated for course drive movements Science Instrument Mounting Flange and TA Balancing Assembly mounted to Suspension Assembly Secondary Mirror and Spider Vanes attached to Metering Structure TA Metering Structure installed in aircraft Telescope Suspension Assembly installed in aircraft Aircraft downjacked onto landing gear |
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| 2002 | |
|
All skins mounted on aircraft Modified aircraft structure completed Cavity Bulkheads completed All components of Cavity Door in fabrication CDR of Data Archive System successfully completed Mirror Coating facility in SSMOC tested and working FLITECAM (SOFIA Science Instrument) has successful "first light" at Lick Observatory Telescope arrived in Waco from Germany |
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| 2001 | |
|
AIRES instrument cancelled Mounting of skins on aircraft proceeding HAWC Critical Design Review (CDR) completed |
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| 2000 | |
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SOFIA CDR successfully completed Incremental telescope CDRs completed Telescope cradle completed Completion of Software Final Design Review Incremental Integration of USRA/DARA telescope software in Munich First cut of airplane cavity skin Forward bulkhead floor assembly completed Cavity aft bulkhead installed Aircraft stringer and reinforcements installed Cavity sill beams modified Galley CDR completed Aircraft ceiling raised for telescope assembly MCS Build 2 completed Conceptual Design Review for SAFIRE completed Data Cycle Core System demonstrated at Rochester Institute Of Technology FORCAST and FLITECAM CDRs completed Flight Scheduler Preliminary Design Review (PDR) completed EPO presents IR Airborne Teacher's Workshop in Phoenix SIRTF/SIM/Astrobiology EPO collaboration launched Science Observing Scenarios briefed to Steering Committee First metal (structural member) cut on aircraft Telescope assembly CDRs completed SOFIA "4 Minute Features" to be shown on United Airlines in-flight News videos |
|
| 1999 | |
|
Four calibrated test flights with maneuvers give confidence to flight stability load distribution, and pressure responses Design efforts continue for modified aircraft structures and subsystems Telescope Assembly Incremental Design Reviews begin Telescope Assembly Mock-up installed Mission Control System Build 1 completed Mirror-coating contract awarded Hanger N211 extensively modified — demolition and steel fabrication, roof Airplane water, oxygen, air conditioning systems modified Internal shoring installed on aircraft from mock-up Section 46 Telescope Assemble CDRs begin Science Observing Scenarios working group meets Final design of observatory Layout of Personnel Accomodations (LOPA) submitted Aircraft Mass Simulator designed Liquid nitrogen injection system designed EPO airborne astronomy presentations in Idaho, Michigan, California |
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| 1998 | |
|
SOFIA PDR completed Design efforts under way for modified aircraft structures and subsystems Conceptual Design Reviews for ARIES, HAWC, FORCAST, FLITECAM, HIPO, FIFI-LS, GREAT, EXES, CASIMiR Data Archive and Data Cycle Group formed Ames Work Products development begins (Water Vapor Monitor, Flight Scheduler) Airplane cavity Environment Control System (ECS) designed Rerouting of air, etc. within aircraft Designed observatory Power Distribution System Design work on the LOPA (floor plan) begins Air Worthiness Manual preparations begin Instrument Rotator designed |
|
| 1997 | |
| April |
SOFIA dedication ceremony held at NASA Ames Call for Proposals goes out to the observing community First Light Instruments selected US Peer Review of First Light Instrument proposals Telescope Readiness Review completed SOFIA (Readiness Review) (SRR) completed SOFIA website released |
| 1996 | |
|
January |
ARC gets new Center Director |
|
March |
SOFIA Project Management gives briefing to NASA HQ Programs Management Council.; ARC Space Projects Review Board given SOFIA presentation |
|
April |
U.S. SOFIA RFP released |
|
June-July |
NASA DARA management interface meetings held in Germany and in the U.S.; Proposals received from U.S. industry teams. |
|
August |
DARA receives proposals for TA. |
|
October |
DARA and DLR merger begins. |
|
November |
DARA down-selects SOFIA TA Contractor team. MAN/K-T/MAN consortium awarded fixed priced contract for development of TA. |
|
December |
USRA team awarded SOFIA contract for aircraft purchase, modification, and system integration. |
| 1995 | |
|
February |
February SOFIA III wind tunnel test completed. |
|
March |
Non-Advocate Review held at ARC; Industry Briefing on SOFIA Privatization held at ARC. |
|
May |
Interface meeting with DARA and German teams held at ARC. |
|
July |
DARA Interim Phase B Study contracts completed by two teams: MAN/K-T and Zeiss/Dornier. |
|
September |
Science Symposium in Switzerland discusses SOFIA. |
|
October |
Stand-down of KAO; ÒLive from the StratosphereÓ last flight; Boeing 747SP course given at ARC by United Airlines. |
|
November |
SOFIA IV wind tunnel test completed; SOFIA Industry Workshop held in Sunnyvale, CA. |
|
November-December |
NASA and DARA both working on their respective RFP drafts. |
| 1994 | |
|
January-December |
NASA and DARA continuing to work together in attempts to get SOFIA moving forward on both sides of the Atlantic; Science Working Groups in Germany and in the US busy advocating SOFIA. |
|
August |
SOFIA II wind tunnel test for aft configuration completed. |
|
September-December |
DARA Phase B1 Studies performed by two German teams. |
| 1993 | |
|
January-April |
Briefings held for various center management review panels on new SOFIA implementation plan, with FY94 "in-house" option proposed APRIL Efforts under way to prepare for aft configuration wind tunnel test |
|
April |
In-house approach approved by Office of Space Sciences (OSS) at Headquarters, by ARC New Business Filter Committee, and by SOFIA In-house Implementation Plan review committee Headquarters Code C funding augmentation executed for technology development work |
|
June |
ARC Code R agrees to de-mothball 14 ft wind tunnel for SOFIA test; Test entry planned for 1994 CFD model on full -SP finalized for first test run Began locating a section 46 of a Boeing 747 "Pro-Engineer" selected as Project and Code E computer-aided design (CAD) package |
|
August |
Headquarters OSS proposes recycling SOFIA as an FY95 new start to Administration/Comptroller |
|
October |
German Space Agency indicates willingness to participate in SOFIA with an FY96 start |
|
November |
NASA redirects planning for an FY96 start with DARA participating |
| 1992 | |
|
January |
IR measurements made of the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft (SCA) engine plumes using IR cameras mounted in Lear jet |
|
March |
Kickoff meetings for Telescope NRA studies (Lockheed Missiles & Space Company (LMSC), Hughes, Kaman) |
|
April |
Kickoff meetings for Aircraft NRA studies (E-Systems and Lockheed Aircraft Services, Ontario) |
|
August |
Second flight test on IR plume noise is made with cameras mounted inside SCA |
|
September |
Further options investigated to reduce total project costs, including initiation of in-house approach study |
|
November |
Plume study completed; aft installation feasibility verified and baseline change confirmed |
|
December |
Final reports of Aircraft System NRA submitted; Results concur with Ames in-house study regarding feasibility and cost savings for the aft cavity configuration Feasibility of modifying existing SOFIA wind tunnel model for an aft cavity investigated In-house implementation plan study fully underway; telescope, consoles + electronics, part of aircraft mod brought in-house to ARC |
| 1991 | |
|
January |
NAS Decade Survey (Bahcall committee) Report recommends SOFIA as the top priority moderate new mission for NASA |
|
March |
DARA's budget uncertain Second wind tunnel entry planned for January 1992 to refine door design trade space |
|
April |
Development on three cavity door configurations for the wind tunnel model underway at ARC |
|
May |
With the realization of possible DARA budget cuts, SOFIA plans for FY92 start with an all U.S. program, with optional help from DARA in FY94 MAY Aircraft Modification Contractors road trip: Find out what companies have interest/capability to perform the SOFIA aircraft modification |
|
June |
Cavity Cooling System in-house study report finished |
|
July |
In-house descope studies begin, to try to reduce total SOFIA cost; 5 cases considered: 1 thru 4 are telescope cost reduction options/case 5 considers an aft cavity location to reduce aircraft modification costs |
|
September |
NASA Research Announcement (NRA) planned as procurement method to fund multiple studies with U.S. contractors to develop a U.S. option for the telescope Descope studies completed; Only case 5, reducing the aircraft modification cost by about 40%, which in turn reduces the total cost of the project by 12%, appears to be viable approach, since the science impact is moderate. Planned January 1992 wind tunnel test indefinitely postponed because of new, aft configuration selected for further study NRA planned for two aircraft studies to confirm the feasibility and in-house estimate of savings for aft installation |
|
October |
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) studies on aft cavity are initiated NRA released for Telescope System studies Aft installation studies begin to analyze background IR noise caused by engine exhaust plume Aft cavity location adopted as new baseline for the Aircraft System, pending study results |
|
December |
NRA released for Aircraft System study |
| 1990 | |
|
March |
SOFIA wind tunnel model tests start |
|
April |
Shear layer control device is developed for wind tunnel model |
|
May |
German Space Agency, DARA (Deutsche Agentur fuer Raumfahartangelegenheiten) budget cuts begin |
|
June |
Non-Advocate Review is held for SOFIA in accordance with the agency's new start-gate policy; SOFIA deemed ready to proceed to development again and recommended for 1992 start Preliminary engineering study of SOFIA Ground Support Facility at new site underway Aircraft System modification procurement activities underway, Source Evaluation Board (S.E.B.) established |
|
July |
Wind tunnel tests successfully completed; A low drag passive shear layer control device derived, that exceeds performance expectations Redefining of cavity door begins, to incorporate wind tunnel test results In-house studies of Telescope Sub-Systems begin |
|
October |
Consoles and Electronics System (CES) mock-ups evaluated Reunification of Germany, requiring reduction of German government agencies' budgets |
| 1989 | |
|
January |
Telescope diameter fixed at 2.5 meters by NASA HQ/DFVLR agreement |
|
February |
Wind tunnel model design complete and fabrication begins |
|
May |
Headquarters establishes Science Working Group (SWG) as follow- on to SOFIA Science Consulting Group Recommendation to proceed with development from Space Science and Applications Advisory Committee (SSAAC) Project Definition Review completed at ARC; Found SOFIA well planned and defined and approved the project to proceed into the development phase contingent on a successful completion of wind tunnel test |
|
June |
Draft MOU for development and operations phases reviewed by Ames, headquarters (Code S, X, and G), SWG, and the German Aerospace Research Establishment (DLR), formerly DFVLRFabrication of wind tunnel model completed by Microcraft; Model air-freighted to Ames. However, SOFIA wind tunnel test start delayed to allow completion of incumbent test |
|
July |
Non-Advocate Cost Review successfully completed at ARC with NASA Headquarters participation; Affirmation of project readiness for 1991 start; FRG listed as responsible for telescope assembly 14 ft wind tunnel breaks down: cracked turning vanes, SOFIA test start delayed further Definition studies completed by NASA and BMFT; Phase B complete |
|
September |
Telescope and Aircraft System Phase B final reviews are completed and reports published |
|
October |
Boeing re-organizes; No longer interested in "one-of" mods like SOFIA |
|
November |
Berlin wall falls; Reunification of East and West Germany considered |
| 1988 | |
|
January |
Small IR Project Concept Review awards SOFIA highest priority, Committee on Space Astronomy (CSAA) and Astrophysics endorses SOFIA |
|
April |
Phase B Aircraft Proposal review at Boeing Military Airplanes (BMA) |
|
May |
SOFIA in preliminary Office of Space Science and Applications (OSSA) Research and Analysis FY90 budget for start of development and acquisition of aircraft |
|
June |
Space and Earth Sciences Advisory Committee (SESAC) recommends that SOFIA proceed into definition phase Rose Engineering under contract to provide wind tunnel test plan and be the principal investigator in defining the SOFIA cavity shear layer control device |
|
August |
Meetings at Society of Photo-optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) and ARC with FRG (Zeiss) technical experts on technology status, study issues, interfaces, and planning Microcraft begins conceptual design of wind tunnel model at 7% scale Project Readiness Review (PRR) of SOFIA at ARC; Approval to proceed with project definition |
|
September |
SOFIA zeroed for new start in FY90 budget; Replanning for FY91 development starts Requirements and interfaces documents for definition studies completed and distributed Resource assessment studies completed with Electrospace Systems Inc. (ESI), E-Systems, and The Analytical Sciences Corporation (TASC) |
|
October |
Phase B (Definition Study) kickoff meeting for German Telescope Assembly at Zeiss completed Data System definition study kickoff at ARC by Code EES Ames project coordination meeting completed with DFVLR in Cologne Preliminary Design Review of wind tunnel model completed BMFT (Bundesministerium fuer Forschung und Technologie), the German Ministry of Science and Technology, issued authority to proceed with Phase B definition studies for Telescope System |
|
November |
Project Readiness Review of Telescope System completed at Zeiss Interface definition meeting between three German telescope contractors, BMA, and Ames completed at Zeiss |
|
December |
Astrophysics division/BMFT workshop completed at NASA Headquarters |
| 1987 | |
|
February |
Telescope System Phase A Study midterm review at ARC |
|
February-September |
Boeing-MAC Phase II Study |
|
May |
German Phase A studies complete |
|
July |
SOFIA concept review held at ARC |
|
May-August |
Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC) cost study for Aircraft System |
|
September |
Ames Conceptual System study finished; SOFIA "Phase A System Concept Description" (The Red Book) published |
| 1986 | |
|
January |
Ames Research Center (ARC) establishes SOFIA Study Office |
|
May |
SOFIA technology workshop at Ames; Informal examination of the SOFIA concept and associated technical issues presented by experts in the related disciplines |
|
May-November |
Boeing-MAC Phase I Study; Confirms the feasibility of installing a 2.5 meter telescope in a 747SP JULY Ames receives draft of the Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) for Telescope System study Statement of Work (SOW) from Germany |
|
August |
A presentation of SOFIA is held at NASA Headquarters |
|
October |
Ames in-house Conceptual System study begins |
|
November |
Collaborative agreement made with DFVLR (Deutsche Forschungsanstalt fuer Luft und Raumfahrt), the German Aerospace Research Establishment |
| 1985- 1965 | |
|
1985 |
NASA Headquarters allocates FY86 funding for Aircraft Modification Study; Science Consulting Group formed; NASA headquarters (HQ), Ames Research, and Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) representatives meet at HQ and Germans agree to study the development of the Telescope System |
|
1984 |
Ad hoc advocacy group of IR astronomers formed for LAT; Paper on LAT presented; "Stratospheric Observatory For Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA) Preliminary Feasibility Study" report issued in December; Ames/Astronomical Society of the Pacific (ASP) Symposium: Airborne Astronomy (10th KAO Anniversary) |
|
1983 |
Success of Infrared Astronomy Satellite (IRAS) shows need for follow-up/exploitation |
|
1982 |
International Astronomical Union (IAU) Symposium : IR Astronomy; Invited discussions of KAO and LAT |
|
1980 |
Concept summary for LAT developed by KAO staff; "Three Meter Telescope on a 747SP Platform" paper presented |
|
1977 |
Boeing delivered to NASA Ames a study for a LAT in a Boeing 747SP |
|
1975-1979 |
Planning for LAT continued at low level |
|
1974 |
First research flight of KAO; Initial studies on larger system |
|
1972 |
Development well underway on the 36-inch telescope now to be mounted in a Lockheed C-141 platform; Project named the Kuiper Airborne Observatory (KAO); Greenstein report on "Large Stratospheric Telescope" published |
|
1969 |
Planning started for installation of 36-inch telescope in a CV-990; First astronomy community interest in Boeing 747 1971 National Academy of Sciences (NAS) Decade Survey (Greenstein) Report recommended study of Large Airborne Telescope (LAT) |
|
1965-1969 |
First use of NASA aircraft for infrared (IR) astronomy (Convair CV-990 and Lear Jet) |
